| Quick Links | | Overview of Contents ... | |
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| Feature Articles | | Lamps & Energy Index, Biamping, Counterfeit Parts, PA Systems, Cinema Sound.
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| Amplification | | Characteristics of Amplifiers, Operating Classes, Clipping, Distortion & Feedback, Dissipation,
Protection, Valves.
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| Cables | | Coaxial Cables, Impedance, Cable Myths.
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| Test & Measurement | | Meters, Multipliers, Shunts, Weighting Filters, ABX Tests, Squarewave Testing,
High Impedance Circuits.
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| Components & Uses | | 555 Timer, Buffers, Capacitors, Comparators, Fuses, Heatsinks, Relays, Transistors, FETs,
Transformers & DC, Variac
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| Non-Audio | | Information about things that have no direct connection to audio. Relays, Motors, Morse code,
Servos, LC oscillators.
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| Microphones etc. | | Microphones, Mic Calibration, Audio Transformers, Reverb Tanks, Guitar Measurements.
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| General Information | | AM Radio, Compression, Equalisation, CD Vs SACD, Importing Gear, Morse Code, Sound, Patents,
Phono Cartridges.
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| Electrical Safety | | Making sure that your working conditions and projects are safe is priority #1.
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| Beginners' Luck | | Basics - Electronics, Amplifiers, Bridging, Opamps, Frequency, Amplitude, dB, Pots, Tools, Voltage Dividers.
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| Design Guidelines | | Active Filters, Amplifiers, Current Sources, Heatsinks, MOSFET Relays, Noise, Opamps, JFETs,
Variable Impedance, VCAs, Balanced Circuits, Bootstrap Circuits.
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| Power Supply Design | | Bucking Transformers, Inrush Current, Inverters, Mains Quality, Small PSUs,
Transformers, Regulators, Isolation Transformers, Mains Wiring, etc.
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| Active Crossovers & Filters | | Active Vs Passive, Baffle Step, Subtractive Filters, Digital Signal
Processing, NTM Crossover, Phase Correction.
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| Passive Crossover Design | | Data to help you to provide driver impedance correction, and passive crossover design guides.
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| Loudspeaker Design | | Compliance Scaling, Doppler Distortion, Impedance, Failure Modes, Time Alignment, Subwoofers.
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| Main Index | | ESP Home Page
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Feature Articles | Flag
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Amplifier Troubleshooting and Repair Guide If it's broken, you may be able to fix it. This article is designed for those new to repairs | |
Apr 2003 |
Amp Troubleshooting and Repair Guide - Part 2 Preamps, crossovers and other opamp circuits can cause grief too | |
Jan 2007 | |
Lamps & Energy - All material under this heading now has a new home with a separate index | |
May 2015 | |
Benefits of Bi-Amplification - Not quite magic, but close (Part I) | |
May 2005 | |
Benefits of Bi-Amplification - Crossovers, tri-amping, etc. (Part II) | |
May 2005 | |
Cinema Sound ... Why Isn't It Excellent? - The cinema X-Curve (ISO Bulletin 2969) is used everywhere, but is it right? | |
Mar 2012 | |
Counterfeit (Fake!) Semiconductors - Don't you be caught with fake, below spec transistors when you build a project! | |
Feb 2011 | |
Distortion - What It Is And How It's Measured. A thorough look at the techniques used to measure distortion. | |
Oct 2022 | |
Education - Customised projects for schools, technical colleges and universities | |
Apr 2003 | |
Power Amp Development - Power amps have changed a lot since the late 1940s, and this article covers a multitude of designs since then. |
| Aug 2021 | |
Public Address Systems for Music Applications - Something of an exposé on the pitfalls of PA systems. | |
Oct 2009 | |
State of Manufacturing - This article should be a mandatory read for all businessmen and politicians, a real wake-up call ! (Nothing has really changed since this was first written.) | | May 2010 | |
The Right To Repair, Projects, DIY & Sustainability - A look at many of the issues that face owners of modern equipment that can't be repaired! | |
April 2020 | |
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Amplification | Flag | Updated | |
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Amplifier Sound - What causes the perceived differences between amps? Is it real or imaginary? | |
Apr 2000 | |
Amplifier Classes - What is the difference between Class-A, Class-B and all the others? The characteristics of each are discussed | |
Nov 2017 | |
Amplifier Power - How Much Do You Need? Probably a lot less than you think. | |
Sep 2019 | |
Capacitor Coupled Power Amplifiers - a close examination of just how capacitor coupling works in a power amplifier | |
Jan 2022 | |
Class-A - a discussion of the benefits of Class-A amplifiers | |
Apr 2005 | |
Class-G - One of the lesser known amp classes. An explanation of how they work | |
Jan 2009 | |
DC Servos - Tips, Traps & Applications. | |
Jun 2019 | |
Class-D (PWM) Amplifiers - Theory and design concepts behind these 'new' amplifiers | |
Jun 2005 | |
Class-D Amplifiers - Part II - Example circuits and some test results on various ICs | |
Jun 2022 | |
Clipping Behaviour - One of the lesser known effects of amplifier clipping, and the damage it can do. | |
Oct 2004 | |
Commercial Sound - 70V & 100V 'constant voltage' line public address systems. Learn the pitfalls before you get caught. | |
Jun 2012 | |
Crossover distortion is fairly well understood, but this article explains why it cannot be 'cured' with feedback. | |
Nov 2023 | |
Current Drive - Current Drive Power Amplifiers & Effects on Loudspeaker Drivers. | |
Apr 2019 | |
Distortion & Negative Feedback - A detailed look at the way negative feedback reduces distortion | |
Oct 2006 | |
Guitar Amplifiers - Often there is little point repairing, and a replacement power amp should be considered. This explains why. | |
Feb 2011 | |
Guitar Speakers - A detailed examination of the things that go towards 'the sound' of guitar speakers. | |
Sep 2018 | |
IC Power Amplifiers - Getting more power by adding booster transistors. | |
Jan 2019 | |
Intermodulation Distortion - Interesting finding, symmetrical Vs. asymmetrical. Where did the difference frequency go? | |
Sep 2012 | |
Intermodulation Distortion - How it's measured, and what it does to the sound. A description of the common IMD tests and how it's created. | |
Feb 2019 | |
Musical Instrument Amplifiers - Guitar, Bass and Keyboard | |
Feb 2001 | |
Single-Supply Amplifiers. In the early days, this was the only choice for transistor amp. It's now uncommon, but the technique should not be considered 'dead' | |
Jul 2023 | |
Short Circuit Protection - Testing amplifiers to the limits ‡ | |
Aug 2000 | |
Soft Clipping - Is adding a soft-clip circuit worth the effort? | |
Apr 2006 | |
The Need For Speed - Very high speed opamps from Texas Instruments | |
Aug 2001 | |
Phase Angle Vs. Transistor Dissipation - A simplified approach to understanding Safe Operating Area | |
Mar 2005 | |
Sound Impairment Monitor - Is This The Answer? - A new method to monitor distortion in real time | |
Sep 2000 | |
Transistor Safe Operating Area - What is SOA, and how does it affect amplifier designs | |
Aug 2003 | |
Valves & Amplifiers - A separate section that includes information about valves, myths, etc. | |
Jan 2010 | |
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Cables | Flag | Updated | | |
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Audio Interconnect Comparisons - Using a null test methodology, this demonstrates the (virtually non-existent) differences between cables. | |
Oct 2003 | |
Coaxial Cables - An introduction to coaxial (coax) cables, and where (and why) they are used | |
Jul 2016 | |
Cable Impedance - Characteristic impedance, high capacitance designs and amp stability | |
Oct 2003 | |
The Truth About Cables, Interconnects and Audio in General - A 'must read' article | |
Sep 2002 | |
More Truth About Cables - A white paper discussing speaker cables and interconnects *‡ | |
Jul 2001 | |
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Test & Measurement | Flag | Updated | | |
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A-B Switch Box for Amplifier Comparisons - Something to offend everyone, or a great tool? ‡ | |
Aug 2000 | |
ABX Comparator - A true ABX system that does not need a PC or microcontroller ‡ | |
Aug 2002 | |
Attenuators - How to design meter (and oscilloscope) attenuators. Definitely an article for 'hard-core' enthusiasts | |
Dec 2021 | |
A-Weighting And Sound Measurements ... How the indiscriminate use of A-weighting causes grief | |
Sep 2012 | |
Current Detection and Measurement - A look at the various techniques used for current monitoring (measurement) and detection. | |
Mar 2022 | |
Distortion - What It Is And How It's Measured. A thorough look at the techniques used to measure distortion. | |
Oct 2022 | |
High Impedance Circuits - a collection of circuits for piezo sensors, test & measurement applications | |
Mar 2020 | |
Lock-In Amplifiers - How to measure very small signal levels in the presence of high noise levels. The techniques described are usually only seen in laboratories, but you can have one too. |
| Jan 2024 | |
Inrush Testing - Testing for worst-case inrush current isn't easy, but this mains switching unit allows repeatable results for transformer and electronic loads. |
| May 2022 | |
Meters, Multipliers & Shunts - How to use analogue and digital panel meters | |
May 2006 | |
Multimeters. Analogue Vs. Digital with a discussion of the advantages/ disadvantages of each. Includes insulation testers, VTVMs, FET meters, etc. | |
Feb 2022 | |
Notch filters are used for distortion measurement, but they can be used for so much more. | |
Nov 2023 | |
Oscilloscopes ... How They Work And Their Usage | |
Mar 2017 | |
Squarewave Testing - How to interpret the changes made to a squarewave by amplifiers, tone controls and filters | |
Feb 2015 | |
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Components & Uses | Flag | Updated | |
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The 555 Timer - How to use it, and some example circuits | |
May 2015 | |
BJT Parameters - An examination of fundamental bipolar transistor parameters and function. (Now includes switching.) | |
Feb 2020 | |
Buying Parts - A general look at the parts you need for electronics hobby work. | |
Oct 2007 | |
Capacitors - What are the influences that determine the so-called 'sound' of capacitors. Covers dielectrics, dissipation factor, etc. | |
Oct 2005 | |
Comparators - The unsung heroes of electronics. An examination of their performance and usage in circuitry. | |
Aug 2016 | |
Compound vs. Darlington - An explanation of the differences between Compound (Sziklai) and Darlington pairs. | |
Jan 2011 | |
DC Offset and Transformers - Many people have found that toroidal transformers growl at times. This explains why, & how to fix it. | |
Mar 2008 | |
FETs (& MOSFETs) - Applications, Advantages and Disadvantages | |
Sep 2017 | |
Fusing - Circuit protection, how to select the right circuit protection device to prevent serious damage ‡ | |
Sep 2009 | |
Follow The Leader - Voltage Followers & Buffers, the techniques and different topologies are discussed, with the advantages and disadvantages of each explained | |
Jul 2016 | |
Heatsink - Build Your Own? - Yes, it can be done. If you have the tools, you can make a heatsink as big as you'll ever want. |
| Feb 2006 | |
LM358 and LM324 performance improvements - How to (almost) eliminate distortion with these versatile, low-cost opamps. | |
Sep 2021 | |
Transformers ... The Variac - One of the most useful but misunderstood pieces of workshop equipment. | |
Feb 2009 | |
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Non-Audio Information | Flag | Updated | | |
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Contact Arc Mitigation & Prevention. How to extend the contact life of relays and contactors | |
Sep 2020 | |
Hybrid Relays - Hybrid Relays using MOSFETs, TRIACs and SCRs. Improved performance & reliability for difficult loads | |
Aug 2020 | |
Inductor/ Capacitor (LC) Oscillators. These began the era of radio ('wireless') as we know it. These are not directly related to audio, but are important building-blocks. | | Feb 2022 | |
Morse Code - The birth of electronic messaging, and there's more to it than you might think. | |
Nov 2016 | |
Electric Motors - Types, Uses And Powering. All common motor types are covered, but this is intended as a 'starter guide' | |
Jul 2020 | |
Mathematical Functions In Electronics - Using Analogue Circuits. Analogue computing is far from 'dead', and this article explains the principles. |
| Apr 2023 | |
Relays (Part 1) - What they are, what they do, and how to get the best results from them | |
Dec 2014 | |
Relays (Part 2) - Getting the best results from relay contacts & minimising arcing | |
Jan 2015 | |
Relays (Part 3) - Additional information, discussing some hybrid options etc. | |
Oct 2023 | |
Servos, remote control, electronic speed controls and tachometers. Includes sample schematics and photos of typical equipment. | |
Jan 2018 | |
Solid State Relays, Types & Usage. MOSFET, IGBT, TRIAC & SCR types, with schematics and explanations of typical designs. | |
Nov 2020 | |
Techniques for de-bouncing switch and/ or relay contacts, essential for interfacing with microcontrollers or logic circuits. | |
Feb 2024 | |
Convert 50Hz to 60Hz, 60Hz to 50Hz, or either to 400Hz (used in aircraft). This is an odd one, but seriously interesting. | |
Sep 2023 | |
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Microphones & Audio Transformers | Flag | Updated | |
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Acoustic Feedback In PA Systems, With Special Reference To Frequency Shifting | |
Feb 2017 | |
Electret Microphones - Powering & Uses | |
Feb 2017 | |
Guitar Voltages - How much level should you expect from electric guitar pickups? | |
Mar 2021 | |
Microphones - An introduction to the different types, polar response and behaviour of microphones | |
Jan 2006 | |
Microphones Part 2 - Measurement microphones, sound level meters and calibrators | |
Nov 2016 | |
Microphone Splitters - How to send the output from a single mic to multiple destinations | |
Dec 2016 | |
PA Transformers - 70V & 100V 'constant voltage' line public address systems. Learn the pitfalls before you get caught. These apply whenever any amp is connected to a transformer! | | Jun 2012 | |
Phantom Power - What It Is And How It Works. Phantom power (aka P48) isn't really as simple as it seems at first. This article is an in-depth look at the schemes used and how it fits together. | | Oct 2021 | |
Reverberation - The care and feeding of spring reverb tanks | |
Sep 2009 | |
Transformers for 'Line Level' Audio - Extremely versatile and with many features unobtainable with active circuits, but there are traps! | |
Sep 2014 | |
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General Information | Flag | Updated | |
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AM Radio - Approaches to high fidelity AM broadcast band reception ‡ | |
Feb 2006 | |
Amplitude Modulation - How to generate AM waveforms in a simulator to test detector performance. | |
Aug 2016 | |
Analogue vs Digital - Does 'Digital' Really Exist? The question isn't as silly as it sounds at first! | |
Apr 2017 | |
CD, SACD and DVD-A - A Comparison of the formats in a discussion between Niklas Ladberg and Ing. Ohman (very interesting) ‡ | |
Aug 2002 | |
Compression In Audio - Ever wondered why some music sounds flat and lifeless, even though it's loud? | |
Dec 2001 | |
Earthing Your Hi-Fi - Tricks and Techniques - How to eliminate hum without affecting safety | |
Dec 1999 | |
Electrocution - How to avoid being electrocuted, what to do if the worst happens | |
Apr 2007 | |
Equalisation - Equalisers, The Various Types And How They Work. From 'Tone Controls' to Parametric EQ | |
Feb 2021 | |
Importing Equipment From Overseas ... Effects of Voltage & Frequency on Electronic Equipment (50/60Hz can make a big difference !) | |
Feb 2010 | |
Is Sound an Illusion - An interesting discussion about our perception of sound ‡ | |
Sep 2009 | |
Impedance - What does it really mean? A general discussion on impedance, damping, etc. | |
Jan 2005 | |
Muting Circuits - Looking at the various options available for muting an audio signal | |
Oct 2015 | |
Myths in Audio - A Look at some of the more entrenched myths, as well as some that are just too silly for words. | |
Jul 2012 | |
Opamp History - a look at the development of opamps over the years. Internal circuits are included. | |
May 2024 | |
Patents - A look at the patent system, and how (or if) it affects the DIY fraternity. ‡ | |
May 2010 | |
Phono Cartridge Loading - A detailed examination of the phono cartridge, and how loading affects response | |
Jan 2012 | |
Why Do Tweeters Blow? - The real reason that tweeters (and other drivers) are destroyed by distortion | |
Jun 2012 | |
What is Hi-Fi - A contributed article on some of the subtle aspects of Hi-Fi ‡ | |
May 2001 | |
What is Hi-Fi (Part II) - Continuation of 'What is Hi-Fi' explaining the idea of accuracy (amongst other things) | |
Mar 2004 | |
Yellow Glue - The Enemy Of Electronics - This is a problem mainly seen by service technicians, but it may still affect products you buy | |
Nov 2019 | |
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Electrical Safety - Make sure that you and your loved ones are protected from harm. | Flag | Updated | |
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Dangerous Power Supplies - Plug-Pack ('Wall-Wart') power supplies are common and low cost, but don't get caught by un-certified products, some of which are seriously dangerous. | | Apr 2022 | |
Isolation Transformers - is an isolating transformer on the test bench a good safety measure or a death trap? | |
Dec 2016 | |
Mains Safety - Wiring Standards, Insulation, Class I, Class II and Important Information. Wiring of mains is poorly understood by many, and applicable standards vary worldwide. | |
Jun 2023 | |
Power Supply Wiring - There are a lot of considerations for the wiring of a PSU - read about it here | |
Jun 2003 | |
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Beginners' Luck - The beginners' Guide to ... | Flag | Updated | |
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Electronics Basics - The Lenard Audio site has an education section that is recommended for those just starting out | | | |
Electronics - Part 1 If you are a beginner, read these two articles first. Covers passive components - resistors, capacitors and inductors | |
Mar 2001 |
Electronics - Part 2 The resistor 'E' series (e.g. E12, E24, etc), Zener Diodes | |
Mar 2004 | |
Amplifier Basics - (Introduction) How Amps Work - How amplifiers do what they do, six part series | |
Apr 2005 | |
Amplifier Efficiency - Power Loss, DC voltages and current explained | |
Jan 2000 | |
Bridging - How the 'Trimode' bridging system works in car power amplifiers | |
Oct 2002 | |
Bulletin Boards - A guide to etiquette when posting at your favourite forum ‡ | |
Apr 2001 | |
Designing With Opamps I - What they are, what they do, and how they do it | |
May 2000 | |
Designing With Opamps II - Audio applications, filters, crossovers, etc. | |
May 2000 | |
Designing With Opamps III - More Filters, Specifications, Comparators, etc. | |
May 2006 | |
Frequency, Amplitude and dB - An explanation of the terms, what they mean, and how they are applied | |
Dec 2006 | |
Logic - The general principles of basic logic. Logic families, gates, flip flops and counters. | |
Jan 2020 | |
Mixing - Active Vs. Passive - The basic principles of mixing two or more signals, as used in simple applications through to multi-channel mixers. | |
Oct 2010 | |
Potentiometers - what they are and how to use them in practical circuits. | |
Jan 2003 | |
Power - An explanation of the derivation of PMPO in amplifiers. Light reading, really | |
Jun 2000 | |
Tools - The basics of the mechanical aspects of your hobby ‡ | |
Mar 2001 | |
Voltage Dividers & Attenuators - A short article describing how to design these essential circuits | |
Dec 2002 | |
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Design Guidelines | Flag | Updated | |
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Active Filters - Active filter design guide ... topologies, component selection, slope (dB/octave), transient response, etc. | |
Jan 2014 | |
Active Filters, State-Variable - The state-variable active filter is one of the most versatile designs known. Find out what they can do. | |
Dec 2012 | |
Active Filters Using Gyrators - Some of the simplest and most complex filters used are based on gyrators. The range is huge, but good results can be obtained with simple designs |
| Aug 2021 | |
Amplifier Design - ESP's contribution to the everlasting debate | |
Jun 2001 | |
Amplifier Design With HEXFETs - Getting good performance from vertical MOSFETs is possible (Updated) | |
Mar 2014 | |
Balanced Driver (Part 1) - with Floating Output. An in depth discussion of the design process ‡ | |
Apr 2002 | |
Balanced Interfaces (Part 2) - Essential reading for anyone designing equipment using balanced interconnects ‡ | |
Jan 2010 | |
Balanced Interfaces (Part 3) - Inputs & Outputs (The things no-one tells you) | |
Sep 2017 | |
Balanced Interfaces (Part 4) - The Confounding Case Of The Differential Amplifier Balanced Input Stage (It's much better than some people claim) |
| Sep 2021 | |
Bootstrap Circuits - There are several ways that bootstrapping can be applied. Boost input impedance, increase gain & linearity, or create a boosted voltage power supply |
| Mar 2023 | |
Current Feedback Vs. Voltage Feedback - The two are very different, and it's worthwhile knowing how CFB amps and opamps work, and why you may need CFB rather than VFB. |
| Aug 2021 | |
Current Sources, Sinks & Mirrors - A discussion on these much misunderstood circuits. |
| Apr 2007 | |
DC Offset On AC Mains and Transformers - Many people have found that toroidal transformers growl at times. This explains why, & how to fix it. |
| Mar 2008 | |
Designing circuits with JFETs (junction field-effect transistors) can be challenging - Most of the JFETs you can get have a wide parameter spread, making them difficult to work with. | | Apr 2021 | |
Heatsinks - An article on heatsink selection, transistor mounting and thermal transfer principles | |
Feb 2021 | |
How much heatsink do I need for my amplifier? How long is a piece of string? - A discussion on sizing the heatsink for your amplifier |
| May 2015 | |
INAs (Instrumentation Amplifiers) vs Opamps. A look at some common INAs, how they work, and how to use them. Comparisons between INAs and common opamp circuits are shown. | | Aug 2017 | |
MOSFET Relays - Very different, but extremely useful for high power amps that will destroy any normal relay. | |
Dec 2019 | |
Negative Impedance - What It Is, What It Does, And How It Can Be Useful | |
May 2017 | |
Noise in Audio Amplifiers - An explanation of noise figures, and how circuit noise is calculated | |
Jan 2000 | |
Opamp Alternatives - A sample of the circuits that were in common use before opamps 'took over' | |
Apr 2014 | |
Opamp Bandwidth Vs. Gain And Slew Rate - Three important parameters of opamps are all linked, and this article explains how and why. | |
Jan 2023 | |
Power Supply Design - How to design linear power supplies - transformers, rectifiers and filters | |
Dec 2007 | |
Sinewave Oscillators/ Generators - An examination of different sinewave generation techniques. | |
Apr 2010 | |
Transistor Matching Tests - Matching Bipolar or MOSFET transistors for critical amplifier applications | |
Dec 2001 | |
Variable Impedance Amplifiers - How you can control the output impedance of a power amp | |
Apr 2000 | |
Voltage controlled Amplifiers/ Attenuators - An investigation into VCA techniques, including JFETs, LED/LDR modules and 'true' VCAs | |
Dec 2012 | |
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Power Supply Design | Flag | Updated | |
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Bench Power Supplies - Buy Or Build? One of the most challenging DIY builds is a good, reliable bench power supply (includes examples, but is not a construction article!) | | Nov 2019 | |
Bleeder Resistors, and using Active bleeders to discharge PSU capacitors when power is removed. | |
Oct 2020 | |
Bucking Transformers - Here is a bit more info than you'll find elsewhere - how to do it properly | |
May 2010 | |
Capacitance Multiplier Power Supplies - The name is wrong, but they are still useful. The design process, and a close look at the filter network. |
| May 2022 | |
Convert 50Hz to 60Hz, 60Hz to 50Hz, or either to 400Hz (used in aircraft). This is an odd one, but seriously interesting. | |
Sep 2023 | |
DC Offset On AC Mains and Transformers - Many people have found that toroidal transformers growl at times. This explains why, & how to fix it. | |
Mar 2008 | |
Discrete Voltage Regulators - Used when you cannot use an IC regulator because the voltage or current is too high | |
Dec 2021 | |
Electronic Fuses - A collection of useful ideas with example circuits. These aren't always as hard as you might think | |
Feb 2020 | |
Inrush Current - What it is, what it can do, and how to prevent it from causing problems | |
Oct 2010 | |
Inrush Current Tester - Minimising inrush current is easy enough, but it's surprisingly difficult to measure it. This tester will turn on the mains at zero crossing or at the peak of the AC cycle | | May 2022 | |
Isolation Transformers - is an isolating transformer on the test bench a good safety measure or a death trap? | |
Dec 2016 | |
Inverters - Squarewave, modified squarewave, modified sinewave, pure sinewave - What are the differences, and should you really care? | |
Mar 2014 | |
LDO (Low Dropout) Voltage Regulators - A short primer on these sometimes difficult devices | |
Mar 2017 | |
Lithium Charging - Lithium Cell Charging & Battery Management. Not as simple as it seems. | |
Feb 2017 | |
Mains Power Quality - Does it matter if the mains is distorted, and is an expensive 'regenerator' or other system worth the price? | |
Aug 2014 | |
Mains Safety - Wiring Standards, Insulation, Class I, Class II and Important Information. Wiring of mains is poorly understood by many, and applicable standards vary worldwide.
| | Mar 2019 | |
NTC Thermistor Selection For Inrush Limiting. Explains how thermistors are specified and how to choose the right one(s) | |
Sep 2023 | |
Off-Line Flyback Power Supplies. How they work, waveforms and why I don't recommend that you build your own | |
Jul 2022 | |
Over- And Under-Voltage Protection Techniques For Sensitive Electronics. How to protect expensive electronics from damage caused by a failed power supply or other major failure.
| | Apr 2022 | |
Power Supply Design - How to design linear power supplies - transformers, rectifiers and filters | |
Dec 2007 | |
Power Supply Design Part II - the design of linear power supplies - transformers, rectifiers and filters and SMPS comparisons | |
Apr 2022 | |
Power Supply Pre-Regulator Techniques - A look at the various types of bench power supply pre-regulators | |
Feb 2020 | |
Power Supply Simulations - not quite as simple as they first appear. | |
Sep 2019 | |
Power Supply Snubbers - Are They Necessary And Why Might I Need One? | |
Jan 2019 | |
Power Supply Wiring - There are a lot of considerations for the wiring of a PSU - read about it here | |
Jun 2003 | |
Rectifiers. Half wave, full wave, bridge, voltage doublers & multipliers and multi-phase rectifiers explained. | |
Feb 2018 | |
Reverse Polarity Protection. Using diodes, MOSFETs or bipolar transistors to protect circuitry from damage if the supply polarity is reversed (AN013). | |
Jan 2017 | |
Small Power Supplies (Part I). Design of small PSUs - includes information that might save your life! Also includes 'super' regulators. | |
May 2008 | |
Small Power Supplies (Part II). Regulated Power Supplies, Transient Response & Noise | |
Apr 2018 | |
Small Power Supplies (Part III). Easy ways to obtain a small supply for ancillary circuitry. Includes linear and adapting a switchmode supply as an internal supply. | |
Dec 2023 | |
Soft Start Circuits - a follow-on article to augment the 'Inrush Current' article listed above | |
Dec 2017 | |
Switchmode Power Supply Primer - A discussion covering the different types of SMPS, and how they work | |
Oct 2015 | |
Transformerless Power Supplies; How to configure them properly, and when to give up and use a SMPS | |
Jul 2022 | |
Transformers, Part 1 - The basics of transformers, what they do, and how they do it | |
May 2001 | |
Transformers, Part 2 - The details of magnetic circuits, windings, core types and losses. Now includes current transformers | |
Oct 2012 | |
Transformers, Part 3 - Designing and analysing transformers - not at all for the faint-hearted, but all very useful information | |
Jan 2006 | |
Transformers, Part 4 - Further information on transformer usage, including captured waveforms and worked examples | |
Jan 2006 | |
Voltage & Current Regulators - The basics of both voltage and current regulators, and how (and where) to use them | |
Jul 2013 | |
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Active Crossovers, Filters and Signal Processing | Flag | Updated | |
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Active Vs. Passive Crossovers - An explanation for the profound audible differences | | Jan 2004 | |
Baffle Step Compensation - What it is and why we need to compensate for it | | Dec 2001 | |
Derived (Subtractive) Crossovers - An examination of these networks, and why they are unsuitable for serious use | |
Sep 2005 | |
Digital Signal Processing (DSP) - What DSPs can (and cannot) do for your system | |
Dec 2006 | |
NTM™ Crossovers - This is a topic that has virtually zero technical information on the Net ... until now. | |
Sep 2005 | |
Passive Line Level Crossovers (PLLXO). Useful Or Not? | |
Apr 2020 | |
Phase Correction - Myth or Magic? - Do all-pass filters really work to correct loudspeaker phase anomalies? | |
May 2007 | |
Using Phase Shift Networks To Achieve Time Delay For Time Alignment. | |
Nov 2020 | |
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Passive Crossover Network Design | Flag | Updated | |
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6dB/ Octave Serial Crossover Networks - The simplest of all, but only for low to moderate power | | May 2020 | |
Impedance Compensation For Passive Crossovers - How to make any driver appear resistive to the crossover network | |
May 2020 | |
Passive Crossovers - The Design of High Quality Passive Crossover Networks | |
Nov 2001 | |
Serial vs. Parallel Crossover Networks - Are there any real differences? | |
Aug 2003 | |
Passive Crossover Design Tables - Make your life a little easier with this handy guide to crossover design. | |
May 2020 | |
Loudspeaker L-Pad Calculations. An online calculator and formulae for calculating the values for L-Pads. | |
Aug 2018 | |
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Loudspeaker Design | Flag | Updated | |
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Compliance Scaling - Fitting just about any driver to just about any alignment | |
Jun 2005 | |
Current Drive - Current Drive Power Amplifiers & Effects on Loudspeaker Drivers. | |
Apr 2019 | |
Doppler Distortion in Loudspeakers - Is the effect real or imaginary when applied to loudspeakers? The results may surprise you | |
Aug 2004 | |
Enclosure Design Guidelines - Some tips, tricks and techniques to help you design an optimum loudspeaker enclosure. | |
Sep 2019 | |
Guitar Speakers - A detailed examination of the things that go towards 'the sound' of guitar speakers. | |
Sep 2018 | |
Impedance - Effects Of Source Impedance on Loudspeaker Drivers | | Jul 2001 | |
The Linkwitz Transform Circuit - What it is, what it does and how it does it ‡ | |
Sep 2002 | |
Loudspeaker Failure Modes - Why do loudspeakers fail? What can be done to prevent failures? Not what you expect! ‡ | |
Jun 2012 | |
Loudspeaker Power vs. Efficiency - There's more to this than meets the eye | |
Dec 2006 | |
Loudspeakers (Part I) - see the production of my latest triamped speaker boxes unfold | |
Jul 2001 | |
Loudspeakers (Part II) - The electronics that drive the 3-way system are described | |
Nov 2001 | |
Phase, Time and Distortion in Loudspeakers - Is 'Time Alignment' worth the effort? | |
Jul 2002 | |
Pikku 9 - Simple Network Lowers f3 - A useful approach for obtaining better bass from a very small loudspeaker ‡ | |
Jul 2006 | |
Satellites & Subwoofers - Description of the little known QB5 loudspeaker alignment. Maximum SPL from 2-way bookshelf speakers. ‡ | |
Aug 2004 | |
Small Satellite Loudspeaker - Using techniques described in various articles, this project should have wide appeal for home theatre ‡ | |
May 2007 | |
Subwoofer Conundrum - Some tips and hints on subwoofer selection, efficiency and placement | |
Mar 2004 | |
Thiele Small Parameters - Determining the Thiele/Small parameters for a loudspeaker driver | |
Jan 2006 | |
Volume Filling a Reflex Box - It is generally thought that vented boxes should not be filled, but this isn't necessarily the case ‡ | |
Feb 2007 | |
Practical DIY Waveguides - Waveguide definition, calculation and construction ‡ | |
Dec 2006 | |